Extreme Materials

this video was brought to you by bony wright bony wright is an educational animation channel that discusses various topics such as natural sciences or events of the day such as the current corona crisis or recent protests, their latest video is about the towers of cellular telephony and its effect on human health check out his channel in the description below the simple concept of redundancy and design has brought us the safest form of transportation in human history modern aviation, from engines to flight control systems and hydraulics operating with two to four parallel systems, has become a key tenant of aviation safety, however, the structure of an aircraft, by nature, cannot easily accommodate the use of redundancy, it must rely heavily on of the properties of the

materials

used to build it.

This is an inconel fastener on the Boeing 767, just 16 of these two thousand dollar bolts. Attach the vertical stabilizer to the rest of the fuselage. Incandel alloys are oxidation and corrosion resistant

materials

, well suited for service in

extreme

environments. When heated, it forms a thick, stable passivating oxide layer that protects the surface from further attack. It also retains its strength across a high temperature range. Inconel is part of a class of high-performance metals known as superalloys. Superalloys have the ability to operate at temperatures much closer to their melting point than traditional alloys. They also have excellent mechanical strength and resistance to thermal creep or permanent deformation under constant loading at high temperatures, in addition, they offer good surface stability and excellent resistance to oxidation.

Superalloys achieve their high-performance strength through an alloying process known as solid solution strengthening where the solute atom is large enough to replace the solvent atoms in their lattice positions while leaving the overall crystal structure. Relatively unchanged, the casting process is especially important in the production of heat-resistant superalloys, such as those used in aircraft engine components. Nickel-based superalloys, for example, are cast by directional solidification that produces a polymer grain structure with few transverses. Grain boundaries or single crystal castings that eliminate all grain boundaries completely. This technique improves its resistance to thermal creep. Iron-nickel superalloys tend to be used in jet engines for their high temperature and low thermal expansion properties.

They are generally found on blade discs and engine casings. Cobalt superalloys are also used in jet engine components, although specifically in components requiring excellent corrosion resistance against hot combustion gases. They are resistant to lead oxides, sulfur oxides and other corrosive compounds in aircraft exhaust, while superalloys achieve high degrees of strength, especially at high temperatures as most metal alloys first deform elastically and then plastically until they fail some materials resist this deformation and break very abruptly without plastic deformation in what is called brittle fracture the measure of a material's resistance to deformation, particularly in a localized manner, is its hardness There are three main types of hardness measurements, each with their own individual measurement abilities.

Scratch hardness is a measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic deformation due to friction from a sharp object. This is commonly measured using the Mohs scale, particularly in mineralogy. Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material deformation due to a constant compressive load from a sharp object. This measurement is usually represented by the Rockwell Shore and Brunel scales and the third measurement, rebound hardness or dynamic hardness, measures the height of the rebound of a diamond-tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height onto the material. This test is usually represented by the Lieb rebound hardness test and the Bennett hardness scale.

Diamonds have always been the standard of hardness, being the hardest natural material known to man; However, in 2003 a non-crystalline form appeared. A diamond known as aggregate diamond nanorods or adnr was found to be much harder than bulk diamond called nanodiamond or hyperdiamond. It was initially produced by compressing graphite inside a diamond anvil cell at 40 gigapascals. This process was then refined through the use of fullerenes, an allotrope. of carbon compressed between 2 and 20 gigapascals while heated to 2,200 degrees Celsius, these experiments produced a series of interconnected diamond nanorods with diameters between 5 and 50 nanometers and lengths of about 1 micrometer each.

X-ray diffraction analysis had indicated that the added diamond rods are 0.3 percent denser than standard diamonds, resulting in their superior hardness. Tests performed on a traditional diamond with a diamond nanorod tip added produced a hardness value of 170 gigapascals. The same test on a sample of added diamond nanorod resulted in a value of 310 gigapascals, although due to the lack of a harder test tip these results may be exaggerated, it is still speculated that the added hardness of the Diamond nanorods on the molar scale could exceed 10 the rating of a diamond. Interestingly, naturally occurring hyperdiamonds have been found at the Papago Crater site in Siberia.

It is theorized that the direct conversion of graphite to aggregated diamond nanorods occurred during the impact event that took place about 35 million years ago. The way we use the properties of materials tend to occur in plain sight, they form the products, machines and structures we use. What we see every day, but less obvious and possibly less appreciated, is how we put these materials together. Adhesives, by definition, are any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate materials that binds them together and resists their separation, sometimes called glue or cement. They are one of the first engineering materials used by man.

Evidence of the use of birch bark tar as an adhesive on stone has been discovered dating back 200,000 years. Adhesives generally come in two forms: non-reactive adhesives that dry with contact pressure solvent evaporation or solidification from a molten state and reactive adhesives that react chemically to harden through multiple reagents anaerobic curing heating or through a reaction with light ultraviolet The mechanism by which adhesives join materials together can be a chemical mechanical adhesion or dispersive mechanical adhesion fills the pores of the surfaces and keeps them together by physically interlacing them. Chemical adhesion occurs when the surface atoms of the two surfaces form covalent ionic or hydrogen bonds and dispersive adhesion occurs when the two materials are held together by Van der Waal forces.

The strength of an adhesive. Bonding is usually measured by the simple single turn shear test. Lap shear strength is reported as the failure stress in the adhesive, which is determined by dividing the failure load by the bond area for comparison, a single six-millimeter spot weld found on the chassis of most . Automobiles generally have a resistance of 20 megapascals. Cyanoact adhesives often marketed as crazy glue or super glue can have strengths up to 18 megapascals when bonded to steel and hardened epoxy construction adhesives can even reach strengths up to 25 megapascals in 2017. The Industrial Adhesives Company Dilo broke the Guinness record for the world's strongest adhesive by holding a 17,500-kilogram truck in the air for an hour with just 3 grams of adhesive spread over 40 square centimeters.

The product used monopox ve403728 is a one-component thermally cured epoxy. designed for the automotive and microelectronics industry that can reach shared powers well beyond 40 megapascals; However, nature still holds the title of the strongest adhesive bond ever observed. In 2012, it was discovered that the water bacterium colobactor crescentus synthesizes a polysaccharide-based adhesin when stimulated by contact with a surface. This substance is estimated to have a shear strength of around 60 megapascals, approaching the strength of a solid copper gasket and now, unsurprisingly, we turn our attention to the opposite end of the spectrum, the slipperiest material, how easily two materials slide against each other against the other.

It is determined by its coefficient of friction, a dimensionless value that describes the relationship between the force of friction between the two objects and the force pressing them together. This value can be divided into static friction where the contacting surfaces are at rest relative to each other and Kinetic friction where the friction force on each surface is exerted in the opposite direction to the relative motion. These frictional forces are the net effect of the material's deformation characteristics and surface roughness, which derive from the chemical bonding between the atoms in each of the materials and how their surfaces interact with each other.

They do have friction coefficient values ​​between 0.3 and 0.6, however lubricants can reduce these values ​​significantly by separating the surfaces. In the case of liquid lubricants, their viscosity now becomes a key component of the friction coefficient in some materials such as The ice self-lubricates, in this case it forms a thin film of water that reduces the friction coefficient to values ​​well below 0.1. The human synovial fluid that lubricates the cartilage in our joints can even reduce the coefficient of friction in our joints to less than 0.01 for over 60 years, polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon has dominated as the slipperiest dry material available, achieving a Friction coefficient as low as 0.05.

Teflon is so slippery that it resists van der Waals forces, making it the only known surface that a gecko cannot adhere to. This property of Teflon even prevents. Insects climb on coated surfaces In 1999 at the Ames Laboratory of the Department of Energy in Iowa, in an attempt to create a substance that generates electricity when heated, a super-hard substance was created consisting of boron, aluminum, magnesium and titanium boride , this new ceramic alloy called Bam was so hard that only diamond and cubic boron nitride were known to be harder. Aside from its hardness, its unique composition exhibited the lowest known friction coefficient of a dry material: 0.04 and could be as low as 0.01 using glycol-based water.

Bam lubricants are so slippery that a hypothetical one-kilogram block coated with the material would begin to slide down an inclined plane of only 2 degrees. Bam is currently being studied for possible commercial applications. Coatings as thin as 2 to 3 micrometers have been found to improve efficiency. and reduce wear and tear on cutting tools, as well as other common moving parts susceptible to wear, such as pistons and seals, similar to how this more slippery material was discovered. The most absorbent material would also be accidentally discovered in 2013 by a group of nanotechnology researchers at Uppsala University while searching for more viable methods for drug delivery using porous calcium carbonate, the team had accidentally created a completely new material that during For more than 100 years it was thought that it was impossible to manufacture this material.

Mesoporous magnesium carbonate or upsalite is a non-toxic magnesium carbonate with an

extreme

ly poor surface area. The area that allows it to absorb more moisture at low humidity than any other known material is so porous that a single gram has a surface area of ​​around 800 square meters. The team began experimenting with magnesium carbonates using the techniques they apply to calcium carbonate. Due to their existing approval for drug delivery, they were totally unaware of the fact that researchers had been trying to produce disordered forms of magnesium carbonates for decades using similar techniques without success, the breakthrough came when they modified the process a little and accidentally left the material in a reaction chamber. over a weekend, resulting in a peculiar gel, after a year of refinement, the process produced lightweight upsilite which is created by reacting magnesium oxide and methanol under pressurized carbon dioxide.

Agitation and depressurization of the product results in an alkaline gel that swells as the trapped carbon dioxide expands and expands.Once the carbon dioxide is released, the residual methanol evaporates from the gel with a heat treatment that solidifies it and leaves a porous network in the material. Scientists have created many new high surface area materials with nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and zeolites, which makes upsalate unique. is the size of its nanopores, each nanopore is less than 10 nanometers in diameter, resulting in one gram of the material having 26 trillion nanopores, making it very reactive with its environment.

This feature gives it incredible moisture absorption properties that allow it to absorb more than 20 times. more moisture than fumed silica, a material commonly used for moisture control during the transportation of moisture-sensitive goods, while upslide is currently marketed for moisture control in the oil and gas industry as well as a climbing chalk in the sports industry. investigated for application in drug delivery, poor aqueous solubility has limited the approval of many potential drugs due to their reduced therapeutic effect. The pores of upsali can be used to house such drugs, making them effective and regulating their release by adjusting particle size and pore size.

Other potential applications are still being discovered as the material is developed for industrial use. Our final substance is not extreme due to its innate properties but rather what it induces in other materials. Chlorine trifluoride is a colorless, corrosive, poisonous and extremely reactive gas in fact, it is so reactive that it is the most flammable substance known, first prepared in 1930 by the German chemist Otto Ruff. It was created by fluorinating chlorine and then separating it by distillation because chlorine trifluoride is such a strong oxidizing and fluorinating agent that it will react with most. inorganic and organic materials and will even initiate combustion with many non-flammable materials without any ignition source.

These reactions are usually violent and in some cases evenexplosive, its oxidizing capacity even exceeds oxygen, allowing it to react even against oxide-containing materials considered non-combustible. It has been reported to ignite glass, sand, asbestos and other highly fire retardant materials. It also ignites the ashes of materials that have already burned into oxygen in an industrial accident incident. A spill of 900 kilograms of chlorine trifluoride could burn 30 centimeters of concrete and 90 centimeters of gravel under exposure to its liquid or gas form. Even igniting living tissue, a chlorine trifluoride fire is nearly impossible to put out as it reacts with water-based fire suppressants and oxidizes even in the absence of atmospheric oxygen, rendering CO2 and halons ineffective.

The only known method capable of fighting a chlorine trifluoride fire is to flood the area with nitrogen or helium, while steel, copper or nickel are relatively safe due to a thin layer of insoluble metallic fluoride that forms the majority of the Metals such as molybdenum, tungsten and titanium will react aggressively. Equipment that comes into contact with chlorine trifluoride must be thoroughly cleaned and then passivated; even small amounts remaining can be burned off through passivation. Layer faster than it can reform. Chlorine trifluoride reacts so aggressively that it can even corrode materials that are otherwise known to be noncorrodible, such as iridium, platinum, and even gold.

It has been found to be used industrially as a powerful cleaning agent in semiconductor manufacturing. It is used to clean chemicals. vapor deposition chambers due to their ability to decompose semiconductor material. It has also been used to a limited extent in the processing of fuel for nuclear reactors, while the use of chlorine trifluoride as rocket propulsion has been explored. Handling concerns have limited its use during World War II. It was also examined. for use as incendiary and poison gas, with over 50 tons manufactured by the Germans, although it was never used during the war.